Clinical research
The STROBE Checklist for Observational Studies, Explained
What the STROBE checklist asks for in cohort, case-control and cross-sectional studies, section by section, with the items reviewers most often find missing.
Blog
Statistics guides that get your write-up right
Step-by-step guides on reporting results in APA 7, picking the correct test, and turning software output into a clean, defensible write-up.
Clinical research
Relative Risk vs Odds Ratio: The Difference and How to Report Each
Relative risk and odds ratio explained with one worked example: how each is calculated, when they diverge, which your study design allows, and how to report them.
Clinical research
How to Report Statistics in AMA Style (JAMA, Medical Journals)
The AMA Manual of Style rules for statistics in medical papers: P values, confidence intervals, mean (SD), percentages and decimals, with examples and APA differences.
Clinical research
How to Report Sensitivity, Specificity and ROC AUC (With Example)
How to report a diagnostic accuracy study: the 2 × 2 table, sensitivity, specificity, PPV and NPV with 95% CIs, the ROC curve and AUC, and the cut-off.
Clinical research
How to Report Kaplan-Meier Survival and the Log-Rank Test (With Example)
How to report Kaplan-Meier survival curves and the log-rank test: median survival with 95% CI, events and censoring, the χ² and P value, and the figure.
Clinical research
How to Report a Cox Regression and Hazard Ratios (With Example)
How to report a Cox proportional hazards regression: hazard ratios with 95% CIs and P values, adjusted vs unadjusted, the proportional hazards check and a table.
Clinical research
How to Make Table 1 (Baseline Characteristics) for a Medical Paper
How to build Table 1 for a clinical study: which summary for each variable, mean (SD) vs median (IQR), n (%), standardized differences instead of P values.
Clinical research
How to Calculate Sample Size for a Survey (Cochran's Formula, With Example)
How to calculate the sample size for a cross-sectional survey with Cochran's formula, the finite population correction and non-response, and how to report it.
Clinical research
CONSORT 2025: The Updated Checklist for Reporting Randomized Trials
What CONSORT 2025 asks for when reporting a randomized trial: the 30-item checklist, the new open science section, what changed from CONSORT 2010 and the flow diagram.
Reporting results
How to Report a Welch's t-Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for Welch's t-test: fractional df, exact p, Cohen's d and the 95% CI, plus when to use it instead of Student's t.
Reporting results
How to Report a Welch's ANOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for Welch's ANOVA with fractional df, exact p, effect size and Games-Howell post hoc tests, with a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report Post Hoc Tests in APA 7 (Tukey, Bonferroni, Games-Howell)
How to report Tukey HSD, Bonferroni and Games-Howell post hoc tests in APA 7: adjusted p values, mean differences, 95% CIs and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report a Point-Biserial Correlation in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report a point-biserial correlation between a two-group variable and a score in APA 7: r with df, exact p, group means and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report a Partial Correlation in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report a partial correlation in APA 7: the zero-order r, the partial r controlling for a covariate, df (N − 2 − k), exact p and 95% CI.
Reporting results
How to Report p Values in APA 7 (Rules and Examples)
The APA 7 rules for p values: exact values to two or three decimals, p < .001, no leading zero, italic p, and how to word non-significant results.
Reporting results
How to Report an Odds Ratio in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report an odds ratio in APA 7: OR with its 95% CI, the percentages behind it, how to word it, and the difference from relative risk.
Reporting results
How to Report a Moderation Analysis in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a moderation analysis: the interaction term, the R² change, and simple slopes at −1 SD, the mean and +1 SD of the moderator.
Reporting results
How to Report a Mixed ANOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a mixed (split-plot) ANOVA: the group × time interaction, both main effects, sphericity, partial η² and simple effects.
Reporting results
How to Report a Mediation Analysis in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a mediation analysis: paths a, b, c and c′, the indirect effect with its bootstrapped 95% CI, and a path diagram.
Reporting results
How to Report a McNemar Test in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report McNemar's test for paired yes/no data in APA 7: the χ² with continuity correction or the exact p, the discordant pairs and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report Mauchly's Test of Sphericity in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Mauchly's test of sphericity in APA 7, and the Greenhouse-Geisser correction when it fails, with worked examples for both outcomes.
Reporting results
How to Report Levene's Test in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Levene's test for equal variances in APA 7: F, both df and exact p, what a significant result means, and what to do next.
Reporting results
How to Report Kendall's Tau in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Kendall's tau-b rank correlation in APA 7: τ, N, exact p and when to choose it over Spearman's rho, with a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report an Intraclass Correlation (ICC) in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report an intraclass correlation in APA 7: the ICC form (model, type, unit), the value with its 95% CI, F test and how to describe reliability.
Reporting results
How to Report a Hierarchical Regression in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a hierarchical multiple regression: each step's R², the R² change with its F test, the final coefficients and a table.
Reporting results
How to Report Fisher's Exact Test in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Fisher's exact test in APA 7: why it replaces chi-square when expected counts are below 5, the exact p, an effect size and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report Descriptive Statistics in APA 7 (With Examples)
How to report means, standard deviations, medians, percentages and sample characteristics in APA 7, in text and in a descriptive statistics table.
Reporting results
How to Report Cronbach's Alpha in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Cronbach's alpha in APA 7 for your Methods section: α with no leading zero, the number of items, a 95% CI and what counts as acceptable.
Reporting results
How to Report Cramér's V in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Cramér's V with a chi-square test in APA 7: where it goes, no leading zero, how to judge its size by the table's df, and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report Confidence Intervals in APA 7 (With Examples)
How to report confidence intervals in APA 7: square brackets, the confidence level, decimals, and CIs for mean differences, correlations and effect sizes.
Reporting results
How to Report a Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a chi-square goodness-of-fit test: observed vs expected counts, χ² with df and N, exact p and effect size w.
Reporting results
How to Format Tables in APA 7 (Rules and Example)
APA 7 table rules: bold number, italic title, three horizontal lines, no vertical lines, column headings, decimals and the three kinds of notes, with an example.
Reporting results
APA 7 Statistical Symbols and Abbreviations (What to Italicize)
A reference list of APA 7 statistical symbols and abbreviations: which are italic, which are Greek, which keep the leading zero, with an example for each.
Reporting results
APA 7 Results Section Example (Annotated, Copy-Ready)
A complete APA 7 Results section, annotated: participants, descriptive statistics, assumption checks, the main test, post hoc tests, a correlation and a table.
Reporting results
How to Report a Shapiro-Wilk Test in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report a Shapiro-Wilk normality test in APA 7: W, exact p, per-group results, what to do when it fails, and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report a Repeated-Measures ANOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a repeated-measures ANOVA with Mauchly's test, Greenhouse-Geisser df, partial η² and pairwise comparisons.
Reporting results
How to Report Eta Squared and Partial Eta Squared in APA 7
When to report η² or partial η², how to write each in APA 7 (no leading zero), the SPSS output to take it from, and benchmark values.
Reporting results
How to Report Cohen's Kappa in APA 7 (With Example and Table)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for Cohen's kappa inter-rater agreement with percent agreement, the 95% CI and the benchmark label, plus a table.
Reporting results
How to Report Cohen's d in APA 7 (With Example)
How to report Cohen's d in APA 7: the sentence to copy, the 95% CI, which d your software gave you, and the small, medium and large benchmarks.
Reporting results
How to Make an APA 7 Correlation Table (With Example)
An APA 7 correlation table built step by step: means, SDs, r values with stars, notes and the three-rule layout, with a worked example to copy.
Choosing a test
Which Statistical Test Should I Use? A Simple Decision Guide
Answer three questions about your data and get the right test: t-test, ANOVA, chi-square, correlation, regression or a non-parametric alternative.
Reporting results
How to Report a Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a Wilcoxon signed-rank test with medians, z, exact p and effect size r, plus a worked example and the mistakes reviewers catch.
Reporting results
How to Report a Two-Way ANOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a two-way ANOVA: both main effects, the interaction, partial η² and simple effects, with a worked example and table.
Reporting results
How to Report a Spearman Correlation in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a Spearman rank correlation: rs, df and exact p, when to use it instead of Pearson, and a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report a Pearson Correlation in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a Pearson correlation: r, df, exact p and 95% CI. Worked example, correlation table and the mistakes reviewers flag.
Reporting results
How to Report a Paired-Samples t-Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a paired-samples t-test with before/after means, SDs, Cohen's d and 95% CI, a worked example and a ready table.
Reporting results
How to Report a One-Way ANOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a one-way ANOVA with F, both df, exact p, η² and Tukey post hoc tests, plus a worked example and a ready table.
Reporting results
How to Report a One-Sample t-Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a one-sample t-test against a known value, with M, SD, Cohen's d and the 95% CI, plus a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report a Multiple Regression in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a multiple regression: F(3, 96) = 14.20, p < .001, adjusted R², each predictor's b and β, plus a ready-made table.
Reporting results
How to Report a MANOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
A step-by-step guide to reporting a one-way MANOVA in APA 7 style, including Wilks' Lambda, the multivariate F, effect size, follow-up tests, a copy-ready table, and the mistakes reviewers catch.
Reporting results
How to Report a Mann-Whitney U Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a Mann-Whitney U test with medians, U, z, exact p and effect size r, a worked example and the mistakes reviewers catch.
Reporting results
How to Report a Logistic Regression in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a binary logistic regression: model χ², Nagelkerke R², B, SE, Wald, odds ratios with 95% CIs and a ready table.
Reporting results
How to Report a Simple Linear Regression in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 write-up for a simple linear regression: F, R², b, SE, β, t, p and the 95% CI, with a worked example and a ready table.
Reporting results
How to Report a Kruskal-Wallis Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a Kruskal-Wallis test with medians, H, df, exact p, ε² and Dunn's post hoc tests, plus a worked example.
Reporting results
How to Report a Friedman Test in APA 7 (With Example)
A step-by-step guide to reporting a Friedman test in APA 7 style, with medians, an effect size, post hoc tests, a worked example, and the mistakes reviewers catch.
Reporting results
How to Report Effect Sizes in APA 7: Which One Goes With Your Test
Which effect size goes with your test (Cohen's d, partial η², r, Cramér's V, odds ratio), how to write it in APA 7, and the benchmarks, with examples.
Reporting results
How to Report a Chi-Square Test of Independence in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for a chi-square test of independence with df, N, exact p and phi or Cramér's V, plus a crosstab table and Fisher's exact.
Reporting results
How to Report an ANCOVA in APA 7 (With Example)
A step-by-step guide to reporting a one-way ANCOVA in APA 7 style, including adjusted means, the covariate effect, effect size, a copy-ready table, and the mistakes reviewers catch.
Choosing a test
How to Check the Assumptions of Your Statistical Test
Normality, equal variances, independence, sphericity: how to check each assumption, what to do when one fails, and the APA 7 sentence to report it.
Research integrity
How Often Are p-Values Misreported? What the Research Shows
Large-scale studies using statcheck found that about half of psychology papers contain at least one inconsistent p-value, and roughly one in eight contain an error big enough to change a conclusion. Here is the evidence, and how to avoid it.
Reporting results
How to Report an Independent t-Test in APA 7 (With Example)
Copy-paste APA 7 sentence for an independent-samples t-test with means, SDs, Cohen's d and 95% CI, plus the Welch version and a ready table.
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